Industrial production of Pleurotus spp. mycelium for biomaterials: a PRISMA-guided systematic review of upstream and downstream processes

Camilo Alejandro Pineda-Soto¹, Marvin Ricaurte¹

¹School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Yachay Tech University, Hacienda San José s/n y Proyecto Yachay, Urcuquí 100119, Ecuador

Author of correspondence. email: camilo.pineda@yachaytech.edu.ec

Abstract

The industrial production of fungal mycelium has emerged as a promising method for developing sustainable biomaterials that can replace petroleum-based polymers. This study offers a PRISMA-guided systematic review concentrating on the industrial production of Pleurotus spp. mycelium, particularly highlighting upstream and downstream processing. The Scopus database initially yielded 124 records. After removing duplicates and checking for quality, 42 studies were chosen for both qualitative and quantitative synthesis. The findings indicate that lignocellulosic agro-industrial waste serves as the optimal substrate, although regulated solid-state fermentation remains the predominant method of production.   Mycelium-based products can achieve a cost reduction of up to 60% in circular production chains compared to analogous petroleum-derived materials.   Despite significant improvements, issues persist with standardization, contaminant control, and regulatory frameworks.   The results demonstrate that fungal mycelium can be extensively employed to manufacture products in an environmentally sustainable way.

Keywords: Pleurotus spp.; fungal mycelium; biomaterials; solid-state fermentation; techno-economic analysis; circular economy; PRISMA

Introduction

The global industrial sector is under mounting pressure to reduce its dependence on fossil-based materials and mitigate the environmental damage associated with petrochemical polymers.     Traditional industrial methods mostly rely on non-renewable resources, leading to persistent waste and a significant rise in greenhouse gas emissions.     The quest for sustainable alternatives has intensified, leading to the emergence of biological materials as feasible industrial platforms (Akromah et al., 2023; Holt et al., 2024). Fungal mycelium, particularly from Pleurotus spp., is recognized for its swift growth, structural robustness, and alignment with circular production techniques.

  Mycelium forms the vegetative network of fungi and can colonize lignocellulosic substrates, transforming low-value agricultural residues into high-value biomass structures.   This quality closely aligns with circular economy principles by promoting waste valorization and reducing dependence on virgin raw materials (Behera & Gupta, 2015; Han et al., 2020; Jasińska, 2018; Magama et al., 2022).   The industrial relevance of mycelium-based materials is demonstrated in sectors such as packaging, textile composites, construction panels, and biodegradable electronics (Akromah et al., 2023; Holt et al., 2024; Choi et al., 2023).

  Despite the growing interest, the transition of mycelium technologies from laboratory settings to industrial applications is impeded by fragmented knowledge regarding process scalability, standardization, and economic feasibility.   Recent studies have determined optimal cultivation parameters and substrate compatibility (Abdullah et al., 2013; Mayne et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023; Xv et al., 2024), although comprehensive comparative assessments of upstream and downstream processes are still few.   Furthermore, the diversity associated with fungal strains leads to variability in growth kinetics and chemical composition (Barakat & Sadik, 2014; Krupodorova & Barshteyn, 2015).

 Comprehensive assessments of post-harvest treatment and structural conditioning of mycelium materials are likewise scarce.  Drying technologies, including thermal drying and vacuum-assisted dehydration, significantly affect mechanical stability and porosity (Singh et al., 2020; Stoffel et al., 2019; Tang et al., 2022), whereas pressing and molding techniques modify density and compressive strength (Manan et al., 2021; Karana et al., 2018).  Nevertheless, the incorporation of these technologies into ongoing industrial processes is inadequately standardized.

Economic modeling indicates a substantial gap in the research.   Despite various techno-economic studies suggesting favorable cost scenarios (Kapoor et al., 2016; Stoffel et al., 2021; Enarevba et al., 2023), most assessments are site-specific and lack reproducibility frameworks.   The integration of process simulation tools such as SuperPro Designer, Aspen Plus, and Pro II has not achieved widespread standardization in research (Enarevba et al., 2023; Bakratsas et al., 2023).

 The industrialization of fungal biomaterials poses regulatory and infrastructural hurdles.  The lack of international standards hinders substantial private investment and constrains certification avenues for industrial applications (Lai & luZhou et al., 2023; Fletcher, 2019; Post et al., 2020).  Simultaneously, energy-intensive processes like substrate sterilization and drying persist as obstacles to low-carbon production (Nguyen et al., 2020; Li et al., 2024).

This PRISMA-guided systematic review aims to synthesize current scientific evidence regarding the upstream and downstream processing of Pleurotus spp. mycelium and identify significant barriers and opportunities for industrial-scale application.

Materials and Methods

PRISMA methodology

This review was performed in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines (Page et al., 2021).  The Scopus database was chosen as the exclusive data source because of its comprehensive coverage of high-impact publications in biotechnology and industrial engineering.

Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram

 Keywords for search: “Pleurotus spp.”, “industrial mycelium production”, “mycelium biomass”, “upstream processing”, “downstream processing”, “solid state fermentation”, “scale-up”, “bioreactors”, “techno-economic analysis”

Results

1. Upstream processing technologies

The upstream phases were predominantly defined by lignocellulosic substrates such as wheat straw, sugarcane bagasse, sawdust, and horticultural residues (Behera & Gupta, 2015; Han et al., 2020).   These substrates significantly reduce raw material costs and facilitate circular economy models (Jasińska, 2018; Magama et al., 2022).

Table 1. Main upstream parameters reported in literature

2. Downstream processing technologies

Drying under controlled temperatures below 80 °C preserves mycelial integrity (Singh et al., 2020; Stoffel et al., 2019). Vacuum and freeze-drying maintain microstructural porosity (Tang et al., 2022). Hot-pressing processes improve density and mechanical resistance (Manan et al., 2021).

Table 2. Downstream technologies reported

3. Physicochemical and mechanical properties

Mycelium materials showed competitive mechanical behavior compared to expanded polystyrene and superior biodegradability (Choi et al., 2023; Olivero et al., 2023).

Table 3. Comparison with conventional materials

4. Techno-economic evaluation

Cost modeling studies consistently report significant reductions when lignocellulosic waste is used.

Table 4. Economic indicators reported

5. Patent and technology landscape

Table 5. Summary of key patents (from your supplied data)

Discussion

This systematic review’s findings indicate a unified technological framework in industrial mycelium production that emphasizes lignocellulosic waste valorization, regulated fermentation conditions, and modular downstream processing.  The prevalence of agro-industrial leftovers as substrates underscores both economic and environmental benefits, emphasizing the strategic importance of circular resource flows in biomanufacturing (Behera & Gupta, 2015; Han et al., 2020; Jasińska, 2018; Magama et al., 2022).

 A significant observation in various studies pertains to the impact of environmental factors on growth kinetics.  Temperature between 25–30 °C, pH values of 5.5–6.5, and humidity levels over 70% consistently correspond with improved colonization efficiency (Mayne et al., 2023; Xv et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2023).  Nonetheless, these conditions necessitate meticulously regulated energy input, prompting apprehensions about operational sustainability in extensive complexes.

Strain-specific behavior emerges as an additional determining factor.   The variations in mycelial architecture and biochemical makeup among Pleurotus ostreatus, P. pulmonarius, and P. eryngii directly affect mechanical strength and structural integrity (Abdullah et al., 2013; Barakat & Sadik, 2014; Krupodorova & Barshteyn, 2015).   This biological variability impacts standardization and presents challenges to quality control in industrial environments.

 Downstream processing significantly influences material performance.  Thermal drying at temperatures below 80 °C has been reliably shown to preserve structural integrity (Singh et al., 2020; Stoffel et al., 2019), whereas vacuum and freeze-drying techniques sustain microstructural porosity (Tang et al., 2022).  Pressing processes substantially alter density and compressive strength (Manan et al., 2021; Karana et al., 2018), suggesting that post-processing procedures can be designed to customize the performance of the final product.

Mechanical and physicochemical evaluations indicate that mycelium-based composites can achieve performance comparable to expanded polystyrene while offering superior biodegradability (Choi et al., 2023; Olivero et al., 2023).   Spectroscopic and microscopic analyses consistently confirm the morphological basis for these characteristics (Ismail et al., 2020; Akromah et al., 2023), while thermal stability assessments demonstrate suitability for industrial heating conditions (Wan et al., 2020).

 Techno-economic assessments reveal favorable trends, especially when substrate expenses are reduced and energy efficiency is emphasized (Kapoor et al., 2016; Stoffel et al., 2021).  Simulation models employing SuperPro Designer, Aspen Plus, and Pro II offer robust decision-support frameworks (Enarevba et al., 2023; Bakratsas et al., 2023), but are still underutilized in comparative cross-study designs.

 The patent landscape demonstrates significant industrial engagement.   Patent applications predominantly feature solid-state fermentation and submerged culture technologies, with applications ranging from textiles to biomedical scaffolds (WO2023172999A2; CN119317720A; US20240067930A1; EP4454847A1; EP3968776A1).   This technology trajectory signifies considerable commercial interest and underscores the need for standardized production methods.

Environmental assessments demonstrate that mycelium-based products significantly reduce long-term ecological impacts compared to petrochemical alternatives; nonetheless, energy consumption during sterilization and drying is a notable constraint (Nguyen et al., 2020; Li et al., 2024).   Addressing this constraint will be essential for fully realizing the sustainability potential of these systems.

Conclusion

This systematic review, adhering to PRISMA 2020 principles, illustrates that Pleurotus spp. mycelium constitutes a technically feasible and progressively advanced substrate for the industrial fabrication of sustainable biomaterials.  Research consistently demonstrates the efficacy of lignocellulosic substrates, regulated fermentation conditions, and modular downstream processes in generating mechanically functional and biodegradable materials (Behera & Gupta, 2015; Han et al., 2020; Mayne et al., 2023; Choi et al., 2023; Wan et al., 2020).

Notwithstanding the evident industrial promise of modern technologies, certain challenges persist.    This encompasses genetic diversity among strains, energy-demanding processing phases, lack of process standardization, and deficient regulatory frameworks (Lai & Zhou et al., 2023; Fletcher, 2019; Post et al., 2020; Nguyen et al., 2020). Economic modeling research reveals favorable advancements, particularly within circular economy frameworks, while emphasizing the need for region-specific data and comprehensive pilot validation (Kapoor et al., 2016; Stoffel et al., 2021; Enarevba et al., 2023; Bakratsas et al., 2023).

  Future research should focus on improving energy-efficient sterilizing and drying techniques, optimizing bioreactor control systems, and developing defined quality measures for industrial mycelium materials.    Comprehensive life cycle assessments and environmental impact evaluations will bolster the argument for extensive commercial adoption.

   The findings validate that mycelium-based biomaterials provide a viable and scalable substitute for petroleum-derived materials, contingent upon the systematic resolution of technological, economic, and regulatory hurdles.

Declaration of interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content of the paper.

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| Received: [September 12, 2025] | Accepted: [November 8, 2025] | Published: [December 12, 2025]   |

Citation: Pineda-Soto, C. A., & Ricaurte, M. (2025). Industrial production of Pleurotus spp. mycelium for biomaterials: a PRISMA-guided systematic review of upstream and downstream processes. Bionatura 10 (2). DOI: 10.70373/RB/2025.10.02.11

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